Allen Guelzo on Abraham Lincoln

John Ramsey McCulloch's works on political economy summarized and popularized Adam Smith's classical economics for 19th-century readers, emphasizing market mechanisms and distribution. His writings served as standard references for students and practitioners of political economy in the mid-1800s. McCulloch discussed topics such as international trade, money, banking, and public finance in the context of evolving industrial economies. His clear expository style helped disseminate economic ideas across Britain and America. These texts influenced policy debates and economic understanding during Lincoln's era.

Jonathan Edwards' treatise commonly referred to as 'The Nature of True Virtue' and his writings on the will (notably 'The Freedom of the Will') examine human volition, divine sovereignty, and moral responsibility from a Reformed theological perspective. Edwards argues for a compatibilist view where divine sovereignty and human moral responsibility coexist, presenting rigorous philosophical and theological arguments about motivations and moral agency. His works significantly influenced American religious thought and philosophical theology in the 18th century and beyond. Edwards' dense, technical prose addresses scholars and ministers grappling with predestination and human choice. His writings remain central to studies of early American religion and philosophy.

Carl Mengers "Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre" markieren den Beginn der Österreichischen Schule der Nationalökonomie. Menger entwickelte eine subjektive Wertlehre, die den Wert von Gütern von der individuellen Nachfrage ableitet, im Gegensatz zu den klassischen Theorien, die den Wert auf die Produktionskosten stützten. Das Buch legte die Grundlage für die Weiterentwicklung der Österreichischen Schule durch Ökonomen wie Böhm-Bawerk und Mises. Mengers Werk ist ein Meilenstein in der Geschichte der Wirtschaftswissenschaften und beeinflusst bis heute die wirtschaftspolitische Debatte. Seine Analyse der Entstehung von Märkten und Preisen ist von bleibender Bedeutung.

Joseph Butler's 'The Analogy of Religion' presents a philosophical defense of Christianity by arguing that human nature and the moral order of the world are better explained by Christian doctrines than by deist objections. Butler examines human experience, the regularity and irregularity of nature, and moral government to show Christianity's explanatory power. Written in response to rising skepticism and deism, the book seeks to show that apparent imperfections do not disprove divine providence. Butler's style is measured and his argument influential in Christian apologetics, affecting both theologians and philosophers. The work remained a central reference in debates over religion and reason throughout the 18th and 19th centuries.

Charles Lyell's 'Principles of Geology' is a seminal work published in three volumes from 1830 to 1833. It presents a comprehensive overview of geological processes, emphasizing uniformitarianism as a method to understand Earth's history by referencing current processes. This theory significantly influenced Charles Darwin and laid the groundwork for modern geological thought by distancing geology from biblical interpretations and promoting a scientific approach.

Published in 1859, 'On Liberty' is a seminal work by John Stuart Mill that argues for the protection of individual freedoms from the tyranny of the majority and government interference. Mill uses utilitarian philosophy to justify the value of liberty, emphasizing the importance of freedom of thought, discussion, and action. He introduces the 'harm principle,' which states that individuals should only be restrained from acting when their conduct may harm others. The essay is structured into five chapters, each addressing different aspects of liberty, including the liberty of thought and discussion, individual liberty, the limits of authority, and practical applications of his theories. Mill argues that protecting individual liberties is essential for societal progress and the avoidance of social stagnation.

This book, published in 1844, presents a cosmic theory of transmutation, now known as evolution, explaining the development of the solar system, Earth, and life forms through natural law. It starts with the nebular hypothesis for the solar system's formation and proceeds through the origins of life, geology, and the progression of fossils from simple to complex organisms, culminating in human evolution. The book was highly controversial in its time, contradicting Victorian natural theology and preparing the public for later scientific theories of evolution by natural selection, such as those in Charles Darwin's 'On the Origin of Species'.