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Italian Trade Led Early Urban Revival
- Urban growth and trade expanded across Europe, led early by Italian maritime cities trading textiles and slaves to Constantinople and North Africa.
- Flanders, Low Countries and Hanseatic German towns grew; German silver mines increased money circulation.
Charles Martel's Victory at Tours Stopped the Advance
- Charles Martel halted the Islamic advance at the 732 battle near Tours/Poitiers, using infantry phalanx to resist cavalry and a feint on the enemy camp.
- Martel's scouts raided the Muslim camp, causing panic and a retreat; Abdul Rahman was killed.
Charlemagne Built An Empire On Pope King Bargain
- Charlemagne forged a king–pope bargain: he protected the papacy and Christianity while the pope legitimised imperial authority by anointing him Emperor.
- Charlemagne modelled himself on Constantine and was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800 to claim Roman imperial prestige.