How to Avoid Fallacies

Theory of signal detection: A fallible observer cannot know whether an observation is real or bogus. Game theory: How to make rational choices when the pay offs depend on someone else's rational choices. causal inference: One mustst manipulate the putitive cause, holding all else constant and avoiding fallacies such as failing to rule out confounds. And that helps us avoid fallacies like saying we should deal with misconduct by making it easier to convict the accused.